Articles
My articles
You will find here the references. Following, you will be able to read an abstract for each article.
Mangin & Pageaux, 2026
Effort and its perception revisited: How physical-domain insights could lead toward a unified theory. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-026-01411-7
Villeneuve, Mangin et al., 2026
Increasing the cognitive demand of upper-limb psychomotor tasks increases the perception of effort. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-025-01393-y
Ghafari Goushe et al., 2026
Experimentally induced fatigue and motor learning: A scoping review. Neuroscience, 598, 157–171.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2026.01.030
Ghafari Goushe, Mangin et al., 2025
Perception of effort decreases with motor sequence learning. Scientific Report, 15, 44403.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-20733-z
Briand, Mangin et al., 2025
Bridging Inductive and Deductive Reasoning : A Proposal to Enhance the Evaluation and Development of Models in Sports and Exercise Science. Sports Medicine.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-025-02289-0
Mangin & Pageaux, 2025
It is time to stop using the terminology “passive” fatigue. Motivation Science, 11(1), 125‑132.
https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000375
Mangin, Audiffren & André, 2023.
Réflexions théoriques et méthodologiques autour du concept de fatigue cognitive. Movement & Sport Sciences-Science & Motricité, 120, 5–24.
Mangin et al., 2022
A plausible link between the time-on-task effect and the sequential task effect. Frontiers in psychology , 13 , 998393.
Mangin et al., 2021
No ego-depletion effect without a good control task. Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 57 , 102033.
Effort and its perception revisited: How physical-domain insights could lead toward a unified theory
In this article, we propose a theoretical reflection on effort and the perception of effort, aiming to move beyond the usual separation between the physical and cognitive domains. The main objective is to clarify what is meant by "effort", how it can be measured, and which neurophysiological mechanisms might explain its perception. More broadly, the article argues that a unified theory of effort is possible, provided that insights from exercise science, psychology, and neuroscience are integrated..
We first show that the literature still relies on very heterogeneous definitions of effort. To address this issue, we propose a transdisciplinary definition in which effort corresponds to "the intentional engagement of physical and cognitive resources to accomplish, or attempt to accomplish, a task." From this perspective, the perception of effort corresponds to the conscious experience of this commitment of resources. This approach emphasizes three central elements: intention, the resources mobilized, and the necessity of thinking together about the cognitive and motor components of action.
The article then discusses the issue of measuring effort. We argue that performance alone is not a good indicator of the actual effort exerted, nor are physiological markers taken in isolation. Given the current state of knowledge, we believe that the perception of effort remains the most relevant tool, provided that this measure is used with a clear definition and precise instructions that allow for the distinction of effort from other similar sensations such as pain, fatigue, or discomfort.
Finally, we revisit the main models proposed to explain the perception of effort, particularly the corollary discharge model. We show that this model is currently very promising for understanding effort in the physical domain, but that it remains incomplete for accounting for cognitive effort. We therefore propose extending it to incorporate cognitive processes, possibly around a central role of the anterior cingulate cortex, and thereby move toward a more general theory of the perception of effort.
Overall, this article primarily aims to establish stronger conceptual foundations for future research. It emphasizes the importance of more precisely defining the resources involved in effort, improving measurement tools, and determining whether the perception of effort relies on a mechanism that is truly common to both physical and cognitive tasks.
To cite this article :
Thomas Mangin & Benjamin Pageaux. (2026). Effort and its perception revisited: How physical-domain insights could lead toward a unified theory. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-026-01411-7
Increasing the cognitive demand of upper-limb psychomotor tasks increases the perception of effort
In this article, we aimed to better understand how cognitive demand influences the perception of effort in upper-limb psychomotor tasks. More specifically, we tested whether increasing the cognitive demands of a task leads to higher perceived effort, even when the movement to be performed remains largely the same. To investigate this, we conducted two experiments based on tasks similar to the Box and Block Test and a pointing task, in which cognitive demand was manipulated using a modified version of the Stroop task.
The results clearly show that as cognitive demand increases, perceived effort also increases. In the first experiment, where the pace of the task was imposed, this increase in perceived effort was accompanied by a relative maintenance of performance at the lower demand levels, followed by a decline when the demand became higher. In the second experiment, when participants performed a self-paced task at a fixed level of perceived effort, an increase in cognitive demand instead led to a decrease in performance. In other words, at an equivalent level of perceived effort, a task that is more cognitively demanding becomes more difficult to sustain at the same level of performance..
These results support the idea that the perception of effort does not depend solely on motor constraints, but also incorporates the cognitive demands of the action. They therefore align with an unified conception of effort at the interface between the motor and cognitive domains. From an applied perspective, the study also shows that perceived effort may constitute a useful tool for monitoring or prescribing the intensity of upper-limb psychomotor tasks, including when their difficulty varies primarily in cognitive terms.
Finally, from a physiological perspective, heart rate proved to be more sensitive than respiratory rate or electromyographic activity in detecting changes associated with increased cognitive demand, although no single marker fully accounted for all variations in perceived effort.
To cite this article : Villeneuve, É., Mangin, T., Gaveau, J., Dal Maso, F., Rainville, P., & Pageaux, B. (2026). Increasing the cognitive demand of upper-limb psychomotor tasks increases the perception of effort. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-025-01393-y
Experimentally induced fatigue and motor learning: A scoping review
In this article, we conducted a scoping review on the effects of experimentally induced fatigue on motor learning. The aim was to take stock of a still relatively unstructured field by examining how fatigue is induced, how motor learning is measured, and which populations have been studied.
A total of 25 experimental studies were included. The results reveal a still highly heterogeneous literature, with substantial variation in the definitions of fatigue and motor learning, as well as in the methods used to measure them. Most studies focus on fatigue induced by physical exertion, whereas few examine cognitive fatigue, and none have investigated the combined effects of physical and cognitive fatigue on motor learning.
This review also shows that the tasks used are not very diverse, with motor acuity tasks being the most common. Moreover, the effects of fatigue on motor learning are inconsistent across studies, with results that are sometimes negative, sometimes null, and more rarely positive.
Finally, we highlight several important limitations in the current literature: participants are almost always young adults, and variables such as sex, gender, physical activity level, or body composition are still too rarely reported. Overall, this review mainly underscores the need to better standardize definitions, protocols, and measurement methods in order to more accurately understand how fatigue truly influences motor learning.
To cite this article : Ghafari Goushe, B., Youssef, L., Mangin, T., Arvisais, D., Neva, J. L., & Pageaux, B. (2026). Experimentally induced fatigue and motor learning: A scoping review. Neuroscience, 598, 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2026.01.030
Perception of effort decreases with motor sequence learning
In this article, we examined how the perception of effort evolves during the learning of a new motor skill. Although it is often assumed that mastering a new skill reduces cognitive and physical load, this relationship had not been formally examined until now.
We therefore tested 30 participants on a Continuous Tracking Task (CTT) across four sessions. There were two conditions: a repeated sequence and random sequences, each performed over two days: one day for learning and one day for retention. The idea is that in the repeated-sequence condition, learning occurs even if participants are not aware that the sequence is repeated. This is not the case in the random condition.
After each block, we collected participants’ ratings of perceived effort required to complete the block. We also measured performance for each block.
Our results indicate that performance improves with the number of trials completed, but that this improvement is more pronounced in the repeated-sequence condition. This suggests that learning occurs in both conditions, but is stronger in the repeated-sequence condition. Learning in the random-sequence condition may reflect motor learning specific to the equipment used, whereas in the repeated-sequence condition there may be both motor learning and cognitive learning of the sequence. Our results also show that perceived effort decreases with the learning of the sequence, but not with motor learning.
This reduction in perceived effort is primarily related to an optimization of cognitive resources, particularly through the mechanism of chunking (grouping actions together), rather than to a reduction in physical demand.
Finally, we discussed the implications of these findings for understanding the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying learning and their relevance for clinical populations in which the perception of effort is altered.
Link to the article, click here
Bridging Inductive and Deductive Reasoning in Sports Science
The literature in sport science is rich in models aimed at explaining and predicting physical performance. These models are generally developed using two main approaches: an inductive approach, which starts from data to formulate theories, and a deductive approach, which starts from theories to test predictions.
In this article, we show why and how these two approaches should be used in a complementary way. We propose a framework for evaluating models based on two essential criteria: predictive accuracy and representativeness. We explain how balancing these two dimensions determines a model’s scientific value: its ability to explain, generalize, and guide practical applications.
Finally, we present concrete recommendations for future research: improving transparency about model characteristics and limitations, integrating the principle of falsifiability, and fostering interdisciplinary dialogue to develop more complete and robust models.
This is also my first publication in the philosophy of science. I contributed my theoretical expertise, the result of many years of reading and reflection in this field. I am proud that this work acknowledges and values these skills, putting them to use in advancing methodological thinking in sports science.
To cite this article (APA) : Briand, J., Mangin, T., Tremblay, J., & Pageaux, B. (2025). Bridging Inductive and Deductive Reasoning : A Proposal to Enhance the Evaluation and Development of Models in Sports and Exercise Science. Sports Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-025-02289-0
It Is Time to Stop Using the Terminology "Passive" Fatigue
The literature on fatigue is extensive and contains many concepts that overlap, intertwine, and partially duplicate one another. The notion of “passive” fatigue, as opposed to “active” fatigue, is one of these concepts.
In this article, we discuss the concept of "passive" fatigue, explaining why this term is semantically incorrect. Indeed, participants performing tasks intended to induce "passive" fatigue remain active throughout the task, as they are required to respond to stimuli, even if these stimuli are infrequent.
In the second section, we examine how the effects attributed to "passive" fatigue (performance decline) can be better explained by the concepts of boredom and sleepiness.
In the final section, we offer several recommendations for future research. Specifically, given that cognitive fatigue, boredom, and sleepiness produce similar effects, we recommend systematically measuring these phenomena using well-defined, robust definitions.
To cite this article (APA) : Mangin, T., & Pageaux, B. (2025). It is time to stop using the terminology “passive” fatigue. Motivation Science, 11(1), 125‑132. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000375
Theoretical and methodological reflections on the concept of cognitive fatigue
In this article, we examined the concept of cognitive fatigue, also known as mental fatigue. After providing a definition, we placed it in perspective with other related concepts such as physical fatigue, central fatigue, and ego depletion. We also discussed the confounding variables that are commonly present in the literature.
In a second part, we examined various theories that attempt to explain cognitive fatigue, such as resource depletion, synaptic mechanisms, motivational orientation, and effort investment. We particularly discussed the possible synergy between these different explanations.
We also addressed the methodologies used to study cognitive fatigue and the confounding variables that need to be controlled. Finally, we discussed the perspectives for future research, including ways to combat acute cognitive fatigue and pathologies that can exacerbate it.
To cite this article :
Mangin, T., Audiffren, M., & André, N. (2023). Réflexions théoriques et méthodologiques autour du concept de fatigue cognitive. Movement & Sport Sciences-Science & Motricité.
Link to HAL, free access of the article
A Plausible Link Between Time-on-Task Effect and Sequential Task Effect
The literature on mental fatigue is very extensive. Two main protocols are commonly used to study it.
The first is the time-on-task protocol. In this protocol, individuals perform a long task requiring sustained attention. It is common to observe a decline in performance as time on task increases. However, if no prior training has been conducted, performance may initially improve due to practice effects before deteriorating as mental fatigue develops.
The second is the sequential-task protocol. In this protocol, individuals first perform a task that is effortful (or a control task requiring little or no effort), followed by a second task that is also demanding. It is common to observe a decline in performance in the second task when the first task was highly effortful. This decrease in performance is typically attributed to the presence of mental fatigue.
In this study, we combined the two protocols and computed a correlation between performance in the two tasks. The correlation was positive but relatively modest (r = .272), suggesting the presence of a common mechanism underlying the two performance declines. One possible candidate for this mechanism is mental fatigue. However, a large portion of variance remains unexplained by this common factor, indicating that the two phenomena also involve distinct processes that still need to be clarified.
To cite this article: Mangin, T., Audiffren, M., Lorcery, A., Mirabelli, F., Benraiss, A., & André, N. (2022). A plausible link between the time-on-task effect and the sequential task effect. Frontiers in psychology , 13 , 998393.
No Ego Depletion Without a Good Control Task
Ego depletion is a phenomenon that has been widely studied for more than 20 years. However, many studies have failed to replicate the effect. In this article, we examined the conditions necessary for the phenomenon to occur. In a first experiment, we attempted to replicate the ego depletion effect by creating what we believed to be optimal conditions based on existing knowledge (i.e., a long and difficult depleting task that strongly engages executive functions), but we were unable to observe the effect. However, we noticed that the control task used, one that is frequently employed in the literature, induced a high level of boredom among participants.
In a second experiment, we looked for a new control task that was as neutral as possible and could be used in the future, and compared it to the control task used in the first experiment.
In a third study, we used this new control task and were able to replicate the ego-depletion effect. We also noticed that the boredom felt in the exhausting task accounted for part of the variance in the ego-depletion effect.
To cite this article: Mangin, T., André, N., Benraiss, A., Pageaux, B., & Audiffren, M. (2021). No ego-depletion effect without a good control task. Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 57 , 102033.
Posters
Effects of Acute Muscle Pain and External Thermal Pain on a Fixed Perceived Effort Motor Task
In this study, participants were asked to squeeze a dynamometric handgrip at a given level of perceived effort, without visual feedback. We found that in the presence of pain, the force produced increased, even though participants maintained the same level of perceived effort. This result runs counter to our initial hypotheses.
Does a mental task can influence your physical performance? The negative effect of the control condition.
This poster was a first presentation of the article
"Mangin et al., 2021. No Ego Depletion Without a Good Control Task"
at the European Congress of Sport Sciences.
To cite this poster: Mangin, T., André, N., Benraïss, A., Audiffren, M., (2019). Does a mental task can influence your physical performance? The negative effect of the control condition. Poster in European Congress of Sport Sciences. Prague University, Tcheque Republic, July, 3-6th.